Employee monitoring statistics for 2026, every number sourced
90% of US firms use software to monitor workers (OECD employer survey, 2025), and 51% of US workers say their employer uses technology to monitor them while they work (American Psychological Association, 2023). The rules are tightening: on September 30, 2026, California banned workplace AI tools that infer emotions (AB 1883).
This page collects employee monitoring statistics from government statistics agencies, regulators, legislation, academic research and independent survey organizations. Every number comes with what it measures, who published it, when, and the sample behind it. None comes from a software vendor's survey or statistics roundup.
Last updated: October 23, 2026. We refresh this page every quarter.
Key employee monitoring statistics for 2026
These ten numbers have the strongest sources on this page: large samples, government or academic publishers, or the text of the law itself. Each one is explained, with its method, in the sections below.
| # | Statistic | Source and date |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 90% of US firms use software to monitor workers, compared with 67% of firms in France, Germany, Italy and Spain and 31% in Japan | OECD employer survey of 6,047 firms, published February 2025 |
| 2 | 55% of US firms use software to monitor the content or tone of workers' conversations, calls or emails, compared with 6% of firms in those four European countries | OECD, February 2025 |
| 3 | 37% of EU workers have their working hours monitored automatically, and 11% have their computer use (keystrokes, screen or documents) monitored | European Commission Joint Research Centre, AIM-WORK survey, October 2025 |
| 4 | 51% of US workers say their employer uses technology to monitor them while they work | American Psychological Association, Work in America survey of 2,515 workers, 2023 |
| 5 | 42% of US workers who are monitored plan to look for a job at another employer within a year, compared with 23% of workers who aren't monitored | American Psychological Association, 2023 |
| 6 | 81% of US adults say workers would feel inappropriately watched if employers used AI to analyze how they do their jobs | Pew Research Center, survey of 11,004 adults, published April 2023 |
| 7 | A meta-analysis of 94 samples covering 23,461 people found no evidence that electronic performance monitoring improves performance, and linked it to higher stress | Ravid and colleagues, Personnel Psychology, 2023 |
| 8 | 21.9% of US workers teleworked in September 2026: 11.2% for some of their hours and 10.7% for all of them | US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, September 2026 |
| 9 | 52% of US employees use AI in their role, and 15% use it every day | Gallup, survey of 22,573 employees, May 2026 |
| 10 | AI that infers emotions at work has been banned in the EU since February 2, 2025, with fines of up to EUR 35 million or 7% of worldwide turnover, and will be banned in California from January 1, 2027, at up to $500 per violation | EU AI Act, Articles 5(1)(f) and 99(3); California AB 1883 |
How many employers monitor employees?
Most US employers use software to monitor some part of work, usually working time and whether tasks are done, and far fewer do so in Europe and Japan. The broadest employer data comes from an OECD survey of 6,047 firms with 20 or more employees in six countries, interviewed by telephone from June to August 2024. The OECD counts software that tracks working time as monitoring, so its figures include simple time tracking as well as more intrusive tools.
| Monitoring task | Share of US firms |
|---|---|
| Working time | 88% |
| Completion of work activities | 86% |
| Speed of work | 72% |
| Content or tone of conversations, calls or emails | 55% |
| Worker health and safety | 33% |
| Worker fatigue or alertness | 31% |
Source: OECD, Algorithmic management in the workplace: new evidence from an OECD employer survey, February 2025
The same survey shows how much more monitoring US firms do than firms elsewhere:
| What the software monitors | United States | France, Germany, Italy and Spain (average) | Japan |
|---|---|---|---|
| At least one monitoring task | 90% | 67% | 31% |
| Working time | 88% | 44% | 19% |
| Completion of work activities | 86% | 40% | 18% |
| Speed of work | 72% | 15% | 7% |
| Content or tone of conversations, calls or emails | 55% | 6% | 8% |
| Worker health and safety | 33% | 15% | 7% |
| Worker fatigue or alertness | 31% | 5% | 3% |
Share of firms whose managers say the firm uses software to fully or partially automate each task. OECD employer survey of 6,047 firms with 20 or more employees, June to August 2024, published February 2025.
- Managers have doubts too. Nearly two-thirds of managers who use these tools reported at least one concern about them. The most common were unclear accountability when a decision is wrong (28%), not being able to follow the tool's logic (27%) and inadequate protection of workers' physical and mental health (27%) (OECD policy brief, December 2025).
- Half of US workers know they are monitored. 51% of US workers say their employer uses technology, such as computers, software, cameras or bar-code scanners, to monitor them while they work. The share is similar in office work (49%), manual labor (49%) and customer, client or patient services (55%) (American Psychological Association, online survey of 2,515 employed adults by The Harris Poll, April 2023).
- Workers in the UK report it too. 60% of workers in England and Wales believe they have been subject to some form of surveillance and monitoring at their current or most recent job, up from 53% a year earlier (Trades Union Congress poll by BritainThinks of 2,209 workers, fielded December 2021, published February 2022).
Workers in the EU describe the same pattern from their side: monitoring of working hours and of entry and exit is common, and monitoring of computers, calls and emails is not. The European Commission's Joint Research Centre surveyed working-age people in all 27 member states from October 2024 to January 2025, with between 1,253 and 3,781 respondents per country, and asked whether their employer uses digital tools to monitor each of the following.
| What is monitored | Share of EU workers |
|---|---|
| Number of hours worked | 37% |
| Entry, exit or movement, for example with swipe cards | 36% |
| Activities, through cameras in the workplace | 14% |
| Internet use during working hours | 14% |
| Calls or emails | 12% |
| Computer use: keystrokes, screen or documents | 11% |
| Location when driving a work vehicle | 9% |
| Social media profiles or public online activity | 7% |
| Location through sensors in the workplace | 4% |
Source: European Commission Joint Research Centre, Digital Monitoring, Algorithmic Management and the Platformisation of Work in Europe, October 2025
- Notice is patchy. Roughly 50% of EU respondents say their employer told them explicitly about its monitoring practices (Joint Research Centre, 2025).
What do employees think about monitoring?
Workers who know they are monitored report more stress, more exhaustion and more plans to quit than workers who aren't, and most Americans oppose AI that tracks movements, desk time or computer activity. Research hasn't found that monitoring improves performance.
The American Psychological Association's 2023 survey compared workers who say their employer monitors them with workers who say it doesn't. The survey shows an association, not a cause.
| Measure | Workers who are monitored | Workers who aren't monitored |
|---|---|---|
| Say their mental health is fair or poor | 32% | 24% |
| Typically feel tense or stressed during the workday | 56% | About 40% |
| Feel emotionally exhausted at work | 39% | 22% |
| Feel micromanaged | 51% | 33% |
| Feel they don't matter to their employer | 36% | 22% |
| Plan to look for a job at another employer within 12 months | 42% | 23% |
| Worry their employer uses technology to spy on them | 47% | 22% |
American Psychological Association, 2023 Work in America survey: online survey of 2,515 employed US adults by The Harris Poll, April 17 to 27, 2023, accurate to within 3.1 percentage points at a 95% confidence level.
- A third worry about spying. Across all workers, 34% worry that their employer uses technology to spy on them during work hours, and 35% are uncomfortable with the way their employer uses technology to track them (American Psychological Association, 2023).
- Upper managers like it more than staff. 79% of upper managers say monitoring makes them more productive, compared with 54% of middle managers, 55% of front-line workers and 42% of individual contributors (American Psychological Association, 2023).
Pew Research Center asked US adults whether they favor or oppose employers using AI for six kinds of monitoring. Only one, monitoring driving on company trips, drew more support than opposition.
| Employers using AI to | Oppose | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Track workers' movements while they work | 61% | 15% favor |
| Keep track of when office workers are at their desks | 56% | 20% favor |
| Record exactly what people are doing on their work computers | 51% | 27% favor |
| Evaluate how well people are doing their jobs | 39% | 31% favor |
| Analyze how retail workers interact with customers | 37% | 34% favor |
| Monitor workers' driving on trips for the company | 34% | 43% favor |
Source: Pew Research Center, survey of 11,004 US adults, December 12 to 18, 2022, published April 2023
- People expect it to feel like surveillance. 81% of US adults say workers would feel inappropriately watched if employers used AI to collect and analyze information about how they do their jobs, and 66% say the information would be misused (Pew Research Center, 2023).
- Face analysis is the least popular. 70% of US adults oppose employers using facial recognition technology to analyze employees' facial expressions; 9% favor it (Pew Research Center, 2023).
- No evidence that monitoring raises performance. A meta-analysis of 94 independent samples covering 23,461 people found no evidence that electronic performance monitoring improves worker performance. Its presence was associated with higher stress, and organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers (Ravid, White, Tomczak, Miles and Behrend, Personnel Psychology, 2023).
- UK workers want a say. 82% of workers in England and Wales support a legal requirement to consult workers before introducing monitoring, up from 75% in 2020 (Trades Union Congress poll, fielded December 2021, published February 2022).
How many people work remotely or hybrid?
About one in five US workers teleworks in a given week, about a quarter of paid workdays are worked from home, and hybrid is more common than fully remote. For how to check on remote work without screenshots, see how to know if remote employees are working.
- Telework rate. In September 2026, 21.9% of employed people at work teleworked or worked at home for pay: 11.2% for some of their hours and 10.7% for all of them (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey of about 60,000 households, not seasonally adjusted).
- Education gap. 37.8% of workers aged 25 and over with a bachelor's degree or higher teleworked in September 2026, compared with 8.3% of high school graduates with no college (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2026).
| Industry | Teleworked |
|---|---|
| Finance and insurance | 57.6% |
| Professional and technical services | 56.9% |
| Information | 53.5% |
| Public administration | 23.8% |
| Manufacturing | 19.2% |
| Health care and social assistance | 17.4% |
| Retail trade | 10.4% |
| Construction | 9.5% |
| Accommodation and food services | 4.2% |
Source: US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, table A-42, September 2026, not seasonally adjusted
- Work at home on workdays. In 2025, 35% of employed people did some or all of their work at home on days they worked, and 70% did some or all of it at their workplace (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey of about 6,100 people, released June 2026).
- Hours at each location. On days they worked at home, people averaged 5.1 hours of work there; on days they worked at their workplace, they averaged 7.9 hours there (American Time Use Survey, 2025).
- Share of paid days. 26.8% of full paid working days in the US were worked from home in September 2026. For history: the researchers estimate the pre-pandemic level at about 7% in 2019 (WFH Research, Survey of Working Arrangements and Attitudes, a monthly survey of 2,500 to 10,000 US residents aged 20 to 64).
- Hybrid versus remote. In September 2026, 57.9% of full-time wage and salary workers were fully on site, 30.0% hybrid and 12.1% fully remote. Among those able to work from home, 50.0% were hybrid, 20.2% fully remote and 29.8% fully on site (WFH Research, September 2026).
- European Union. In 2025, 8.8% of employed people aged 15 to 64 usually worked from home, 14.2% sometimes did and 77.0% never did (Eurostat, Labour Force Survey, updated September 2026).
- United Kingdom. 28% of working adults in Great Britain were hybrid working in autumn 2024 (Office for National Statistics, Opinions and Lifestyle Survey, October 2 to 27, 2024).
- Hybrid and performance. In a six-month randomized trial with 1,612 employees of a Chinese technology company in 2021 and 2022, two days a week of working from home cut quit rates by one-third and had no effect on performance grades or promotions over the next two years (Bloom, Han and Liang, Nature, June 2024).
How do people spend their work time, and is productivity rising?
Full-time US workers average about eight hours of work on the days they work, US labor productivity is growing about 2% a year, and global employee engagement, which Gallup links to productivity, is at its lowest since 2020.
- Hours on workdays. On days they worked in 2025, full-time employed people worked an average of 8.1 hours: 8.5 hours on an average weekday and 5.5 hours on an average weekend day (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey, 2025).
- Weekdays and weekends. 81% of employed people worked on an average weekday in 2025, compared with 30% on an average weekend day (American Time Use Survey, 2025).
- Productivity growth. US nonfarm business labor productivity rose at a 1.4% annual rate in the second quarter of 2026 and 2.2% from a year earlier. Since the fourth quarter of 2019 it has grown at an annualized 2.1%, compared with 1.5% from the fourth quarter of 2007 to the fourth quarter of 2019 (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity and Costs, September 3, 2026).
- Engagement. Global employee engagement fell to 20% in 2025, down from a peak of 23% in 2022. Gallup estimates that low engagement cost the world economy about $10 trillion in lost productivity in 2025, or 9% of global GDP (Gallup, State of the Global Workplace 2026, covering more than 140 countries and territories).
- Managers. Manager engagement fell from 27% in 2024 to 22% in 2025, the largest one-year drop in manager engagement in the report (Gallup, State of the Global Workplace 2026).
- AI and productivity, so far. Around 70% of firms in the US, UK, Germany and Australia actively use AI, but more than 80% report no impact on employment or productivity over the past three years. Executives expect AI to raise productivity by 1.4% over the next three years (Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta working paper, survey of almost 6,000 CFOs, CEOs and executives, March 2026).
- AI and productivity, by employees' account. 65% of US employees in organizations that have implemented AI say it has had a positive effect on their productivity and efficiency (Gallup, May 2026).
Time-use surveys like these describe the whole economy. Within a single company, Intelogos shows the same kind of picture from work computers: the Workday KPI averages the time tracked per scheduled workday, and the Productivity KPI divides active minutes in primary and secondary tools, which you can set per department, by expected work time.
What laws regulate employee monitoring in 2026?
No US law bans employee monitoring outright, but at least four states require notice before electronic monitoring, California restricted emotion-inferring AI, bathroom surveillance and automated firing in 2026, and the EU has banned emotion recognition at work since February 2025. The employee monitoring laws by state guide covers each statute, and the California AB 1883, AB 1331 and SB 947 guide covers the 2026 laws in detail.
This is general information, not legal advice. Laws vary by location and change often; consult your own counsel before acting on it.
| Law | What it does | Date | Penalty |
|---|---|---|---|
| Connecticut, Conn. Gen. Stat. § 31-48d | Prior written notice of the types of electronic monitoring | Enacted 1998 | Up to $500 for a first offense, $1,000 for a second and $3,000 for later offenses |
| Delaware, 19 Del. C. § 705 | Notice before monitoring telephone, email or internet use | Enacted 2001 | $100 per violation |
| New York, Civil Rights Law § 52-c | Written, acknowledged notice on hiring and a posted notice | In effect May 7, 2022 | Up to $500 for a first offense, $1,000 for a second and $3,000 for later offenses |
| Maine, 26 M.R.S. § 620-A | Notice before surveillance begins, during interviews and once a year | In effect July 29, 2026 | $100 to $500 per violation |
| California AB 1883 | Bars workplace AI tools that infer emotional state or collect neural data | Signed September 30, 2026; in effect January 1, 2027 | Up to $500 per violation |
| California AB 1331 | Bars workplace surveillance tools in workplace bathrooms | Signed September 30, 2026; in effect January 1, 2027 | Up to $500 per violation |
| California SB 947 | Bars relying solely on automated systems for discipline or firing and requires human review | Signed September 30, 2026; operative July 1, 2027 | $500 per violation |
| Illinois BIPA, 740 ILCS 14 | Written notice and a written release before collecting biometric identifiers | In effect October 3, 2008 | $1,000 per negligent and $5,000 per intentional or reckless violation |
| EU AI Act, Article 5(1)(f) | Bans AI systems that infer the emotions of a person in the workplace, except for medical or safety reasons | Applies since February 2, 2025 | Up to EUR 35 million or 7% of total worldwide annual turnover, whichever is higher |
| EU Platform Work Directive, Article 7 | Bars digital labour platforms from processing data on the emotional or psychological state of people doing platform work | Member states must transpose it into national law by December 2, 2026 | Set by each member state |
US statutes as verified for the employee monitoring laws by state guide, last checked October 7, 2026; EU texts checked on EUR-Lex on October 23, 2026.
- At least four notice states. Connecticut, Delaware, Maine and New York require employers to notify employees before electronic monitoring; Maine's law is the newest, in effect since July 29, 2026. Our laws guide covers these statutes and isn't a survey of all 50 states.
- Three California laws in one day. California's governor signed AB 1883, AB 1331 and SB 947 on September 30, 2026; the first two take effect on January 1, 2027 and SB 947 on July 1, 2027.
- EU high-risk rules moved. AI systems used to make decisions about work relationships, allocate tasks or monitor and evaluate workers' performance and behavior are high-risk under Annex III of the EU AI Act. The Digital Omnibus on AI, Regulation (EU) 2026/1744 of July 24, 2026, moved the date their high-risk requirements apply to December 2, 2027, and left the ban on emotion recognition at work and its February 2025 date unchanged.
- Biometric attendance checks. In February 2024, the UK Information Commissioner's Office ordered Serco Leisure and seven associated community leisure trusts to stop using facial recognition and fingerprint scanning to check the attendance of more than 2,000 employees at 38 leisure facilities, after finding they hadn't shown why that was necessary when less intrusive options such as ID cards or fobs were available.
Writing or updating a monitoring policy? The free employee monitoring policy kit includes a policy template, a consent form and a state notice checklist updated for California's 2026 laws.
How many employees use AI at work, and how common is shadow AI?
About half of US employees now use AI in their role, while only a quarter say their employer has communicated a clear plan for it, which leaves room for shadow AI: AI tools people use for work without their employer's approval or knowledge.
| Year | Use AI at work | Note |
|---|---|---|
| 2023 | 21% | 11% use it a few times a week or more |
| 2025 | 40% | 19% a few times a week or more; 8% daily |
| 2026 | 52% | 30% a few times a week or more; 15% daily |
Source: Gallup quarterly workforce studies, June 2025 and July 2026
- Use is rising fast. 52% of US employees used AI in their role in the second quarter of 2026, 30% a few times a week or more and 15% daily (Gallup, web survey of 22,573 employed adults on the Gallup Panel, May 6 to 20, 2026).
- Organizations are catching up. 47% of US employees say their organization has integrated AI tools, up from 41% the quarter before; about one in five don't know whether it has (Gallup, May 2026).
- Plans and policies lag. Only 25% of US employees say their organization has communicated a clear plan for integrating AI (Gallup, May 2026), and 30% said in 2025 that their organization had general guidelines or formal policies for using AI at work (Gallup, June 2025).
- Most employers stay silent. Half of US workers who aren't self-employed say their employer neither encourages nor discourages AI chatbots at work; 12% say it encourages them and 8% that it discourages them (Pew Research Center, survey of 5,273 workers, October 2024, published February 2025).
- A fifth of work involves AI. 21% of US workers say at least some of their work is done with AI, up from 16% a year earlier (Pew Research Center, survey of 5,010 workers, September 2025).
- Daily use more than doubles. Daily AI use among US workers rose from 10% in 2024 to 16% in 2025 and 24% in 2026 (American Psychological Association, Work in America survey of 2,009 workers, May and June 2026).
- Worry rises with use. 48% of US workers worry that AI could make some or all of their job duties obsolete, up from 38% in 2023, and 64% believe technological change benefits employers more than workers, up from 52% in 2025 (American Psychological Association, 2026).
- Professionals see it everywhere. 90% of digital trust professionals believe employees in their organization use AI, but only 38% of organizations have a formal, comprehensive AI policy, up from 28% in 2025; 25% have no policy (ISACA AI Pulse Poll of more than 3,400 professionals, May 2026).
- Hidden use. 57% of employees say they hide their use of AI and present AI-generated work as their own, and almost half admit using AI in ways that break company policy, such as uploading sensitive company information to free public AI tools. Only 40% say their workplace has a policy or guidance on generative AI (University of Melbourne, survey of 48,340 people in 47 countries, November 2024 to January 2025).
- EU workers. About 30% of EU workers use AI to do their job, and around 20% use it at least weekly (European Commission Joint Research Centre, AIM-WORK survey, 2025).
- EU employers. 20.0% of EU enterprises with 10 or more employees used AI technologies in 2025, up from 13.5% in 2024 (Eurostat, ICT usage survey, December 2025).
- UK concern. 51% of UK adults are concerned about the impact of AI and new technologies on their job (Trades Union Congress poll by Survation of 2,605 adults, July 2025).
Intelogos records the AI apps and websites people use like any other tool and groups them in an AI time category, so you can filter the Tools page to the AI category and a department to see which AI tools that department uses and for how long. Intelogos doesn't record what people type; it records only whether keyboard or mouse input happened. For rules to pair with that view, see the AI acceptable use policy template.
How were these statistics chosen?
Every number on this page comes from a primary source: a government agency or regulator, a law, academic research, or an independent survey organization or professional body. Each is reported as its publisher reported it, with the measure, date and sample. Intelogos is preparing its own work data report; until it is published, every statistic here is third-party.
- Sources we use: government statistics agencies and regulators (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Eurostat, the Office for National Statistics, the UK Information Commissioner's Office, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre), intergovernmental organizations (OECD), legislation, peer-reviewed and working-paper research, and independent survey organizations and professional bodies (Pew Research Center, Gallup, the American Psychological Association, ISACA, the Trades Union Congress).
- Sources we exclude: surveys and statistics roundups published by software vendors, and secondary articles that repeat a number we could trace to its origin.
- Dates: everything was published in 2022 or later. One older figure, the 2019 work-from-home baseline, is labeled as history. The two Trades Union Congress figures come from a poll fielded in December 2021 and published in February 2022.
- Comparability: surveys measure different groups (employers, workers, all adults) in different countries, with different definitions of monitoring. The OECD counts software that tracks working time as monitoring; the Joint Research Centre and the American Psychological Association ask workers what they know, which can undercount monitoring workers aren't aware of. Survey comparisons between monitored and unmonitored workers show associations, not causes.
- Counting: the 78 statistics in the title are the rows of the data tables and charts and the bulleted findings in the five data sections above. A number that appears again in the key statistics, a chart, another bullet or the FAQ is counted once, and the laws section, which lists legal requirements rather than statistics, isn't counted.
- Upkeep: we check every source each quarter, replace numbers when a newer edition is published and note the date at the top of the page. The full list of sources is at the end of the page.
How to cite this page
Cite this page by its title, publisher, date and URL. When you quote a single number, please also name its original source, listed under Sources.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What percentage of employers monitor employees?
In the United States, 90% of firms with 20 or more employees use software to monitor workers, most often to track working time (88%) and the completion of work activities (86%), according to an OECD survey of 6,047 firms published in February 2025. The same survey found 67% in France, Germany, Italy and Spain and 31% in Japan.
Do employees know when they are monitored?
Many do. 51% of US workers say their employer uses technology to monitor them while they work (American Psychological Association, 2023). In the EU, roughly 50% of workers say their employer explicitly informed them about its monitoring practices (European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2025). Connecticut, Delaware, Maine and New York require employers to give notice before electronic monitoring.
Does employee monitoring improve productivity?
The research says not on its own. A meta-analysis of 94 samples covering 23,461 people found no evidence that electronic performance monitoring improves performance and linked it to higher stress (Personnel Psychology, 2023). Monitored US workers are also more likely to report exhaustion and plans to quit (American Psychological Association, 2023).
What are the biggest employee monitoring trends in 2026?
Four stand out. AI use at work keeps rising, with 52% of US employees using AI in their role. Laws are targeting specific methods, such as California's ban on emotion-inferring AI from January 1, 2027 and the EU ban in force since February 2, 2025. About a quarter of US paid workdays are worked from home. And AI policies lag use, with only 25% of US employees saying their employer has a clear AI plan.
Is employee monitoring legal in 2026?
In the United States, no federal or state statute covered on this page bans monitoring outright; laws set conditions on it, such as notice in at least four states and limits on biometrics, bathroom surveillance and emotion-inferring AI. In the EU, the AI Act bans AI that infers emotions at work. This is general information, not legal advice.
Where can I find workplace surveillance statistics for the UK and Europe?
For the EU, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre publishes the AIM-WORK survey of workers in all 27 member states, and Eurostat publishes work-from-home and AI adoption data. For the UK, the Trades Union Congress polls workers about surveillance, the Office for National Statistics publishes hybrid working data, and the Information Commissioner's Office publishes its enforcement actions.
How often is this page updated?
Every quarter. Each update checks every source for a newer edition and replaces numbers that have been superseded. The last update was on October 23, 2026.
Sources
Every statistic on this page comes from the sources below. All were checked on October 23, 2026, except where another date is given.
Government and intergovernmental sources
- OECD, Algorithmic management in the workplace: new evidence from an OECD employer survey, Milanez, Lemmens and Ruggiu, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers No. 31, February 6, 2025: telephone survey of 6,047 firms with 20 or more employees in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain and the United States, June to August 2024.
- OECD, How widespread is algorithmic management in workplaces?, policy brief, December 19, 2025: managers' concerns about the tools.
- European Commission Joint Research Centre, Digital Monitoring, Algorithmic Management and the Platformisation of Work in Europe, October 13, 2025, and policy brief, December 2, 2025: AIM-WORK survey of people aged 16 to 65 in all 27 member states, 1,253 to 3,781 respondents per country, October 2024 to January 2025.
- US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, table A-41 and table A-42, September 2026, with telework concepts: monthly survey of about 60,000 households.
- US Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey, 2025 results and table 6, June 25, 2026: about 6,100 people interviewed in 2025.
- US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity and Costs, second quarter 2026, revised, September 3, 2026.
- Eurostat, employed persons working from home (lfsa_ehomp), Labour Force Survey, 2025 data, updated September 10, 2026.
- Eurostat, 20% of EU enterprises use AI technologies, December 11, 2025.
- Office for National Statistics, Who are the hybrid workers?, November 11, 2024: Opinions and Lifestyle Survey, October 2 to 27, 2024.
- Information Commissioner's Office, ICO orders Serco Leisure to stop using facial recognition technology to monitor attendance of leisure centre employees, February 23, 2024.
- Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Firm Data on AI, Yotzov, Barrero, Bloom and colleagues, working paper 2026-3, March 24, 2026: survey of almost 6,000 CFOs, CEOs and executives in the US, UK, Germany and Australia.
Legislation
- Regulation (EU) 2024/1689, the EU AI Act: Article 5(1)(f), Article 99(3), Article 113 and Annex III, point 4.
- Regulation (EU) 2026/1744, the Digital Omnibus on AI, Official Journal of July 24, 2026: amendments to Articles 5 and 113 of the AI Act.
- Directive (EU) 2024/2831 on improving working conditions in platform work: Article 7 and the December 2, 2026 transposition deadline.
- California AB 1883, AB 1331 and SB 947, chaptered September 30, 2026. Checked October 7, 2026.
- Conn. Gen. Stat. § 31-48d, 19 Del. C. § 705, N.Y. Civil Rights Law § 52-c, 26 M.R.S. § 620-A and 740 ILCS 14, the Illinois Biometric Information Privacy Act. Checked September 30 and October 7, 2026 for the laws guide.
Academic research
- Ravid, White, Tomczak, Miles and Behrend, A meta-analysis of the effects of electronic performance monitoring on work outcomes, Personnel Psychology 76(1), 2023, published online April 25, 2022: 94 independent samples, 23,461 participants.
- Bloom, Han and Liang, Hybrid working from home improves retention without damaging performance, Nature, June 12, 2024: randomized trial with 1,612 employees.
- WFH Research, Survey of Working Arrangements and Attitudes, Barrero, Bloom and Davis: monthly time series through September 2026, a survey of 2,500 to 10,000 US residents aged 20 to 64 who earned $10,000 or more in the prior year.
- University of Melbourne, Trust, attitudes and use of artificial intelligence: a global study 2025, Gillespie, Lockey and colleagues, in collaboration with KPMG, April 2025, with the Melbourne Business School summary: 48,340 people in 47 countries, November 2024 to January 2025.
Independent surveys and professional bodies
- American Psychological Association, 2023 Work in America survey: artificial intelligence, monitoring technology, and psychological well-being, September 2023: 2,515 employed adults, April 17 to 27, 2023.
- American Psychological Association, 2026 Work in America survey, September 2026, with its AI tool use data: 2,009 employed adults, May 21 to June 1, 2026.
- Pew Research Center, AI in hiring and evaluating workers: what Americans think, April 20, 2023, with its topline: 11,004 US adults, December 12 to 18, 2022.
- Pew Research Center, Workers' experience with AI chatbots in their jobs, February 25, 2025: 5,273 employed adults, October 7 to 13, 2024.
- Pew Research Center, About 1 in 5 US workers now use AI in their job, October 6, 2025: 5,010 workers, September 2 to 8, 2025.
- Gallup, Organizational AI adoption jumps six points, July 20, 2026, and Gallup's AI indicator: 22,573 employed US adults, May 6 to 20, 2026.
- Gallup, AI use at work has nearly doubled in two years, June 15, 2025.
- Gallup, State of the Global Workplace 2026: engagement in 2025 across more than 140 countries and territories.
- ISACA, AI use accelerates while governance and ROI lag, May 5, 2026: 2026 AI Pulse Poll of more than 3,400 digital trust professionals.
- Trades Union Congress, Intrusive worker surveillance tech risks spiralling out of control without stronger regulation, February 28, 2022: BritainThinks online survey of 2,209 workers in England and Wales, December 14 to 20, 2021.
- Trades Union Congress, TUC calls for step change in UK approach to AI, August 27, 2025: Survation online poll of 2,605 UK adults, July 2025.